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AHSEC Class 12 Logic & Philosophy Chapter 2 (B) | 2nd Year Question and Answer | HS 2nd Year Logic and Philosophy Chapter 2(B) Question and Answer ||English medium || 2026

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AHSEC Class 12 Logic & Philosophy Chapter 2 (B) | 2nd Year Question and Answer | HS 2nd Year Logic and Philosophy Chapter 2(B) Question and Answer ||English medium || 2026

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&nbsp;Chapter 2(B)

Observation and Experiment

1丨Fill in the blanks:

(a) The material&nbsp;truth of the arrival estimate depends&nbsp;on verification and monitoring .

(b) Monitoring is the discovery of events and verification is&nbsp;the creation of&nbsp;events .

(c) There is&nbsp;a difference between monitoring and testing&nbsp;.

(d)&nbsp;Before&nbsp;the inspection site inspection .

(e) The scope of inspection&nbsp;is very wide&nbsp;compared to inspection .

2. Writing shorthand:

(a) Conditions of good─monitoring.

Answer:&nbsp;-&nbsp;The conditions of good inspection are mentioned below

(i) The scope of monitoring is very wide compared to testing. There are many things that happen in the kingdom of nature. Some of them are always and some are occasional. These events have no scope. Natural phenomena occur in the natural environment through natural laws. Since events are not under the control of the observer, observation is made possible by observation rather than testing. For example, to find out the cause of an earthquake, we must rely on nature until it occurs. This is because testing&nbsp;cannot artificially produce earthquakes. We cannot artificially create famine to determine the cause of famine. It has been shown that only observation can determine the cause of such actions. So, the scope of monitoring is greater than that of testing.&nbsp;(ii) In monitoring, one can go from action to cause and from cause to action. In arrival, the events explored appear to the observer sometimes as actions and sometimes as causes. With the help of observation, if the action is known, we can investigate the cause. Again, if we know the cause, we can also determine what its action will be. Observation can be used to determine whether the cause of malaria is the bite of the Anopheles mosquito. There is also a certainty that malaria can be caused by the bite of an anopheles mosquito.&nbsp; (iii) Location of inspection Before verification. Monitoring precedes testing. When witnessing an event, observation is always the first step. Testing is possible in cases of limited or low scope events. However, if the scope of the incident is widespread, one has to be satisfied with observation.&nbsp;

(b) Erroneous observation error.

Answer:&nbsp;- An observation that is wrong, ie, one thing is thought to be another thing, is called a misleading observation. False observations are basically sensory defects or not suitable for observing the natural environment. For example, a rope was mistaken for a snake in low light. It is because the natural environment and senses are not suitable that we have a misconception about snakes. Therefore, the natural environment and senses must be appropriate to avoid misleading observations.&nbsp;

&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; fallacious observation can sometimes be the perception of one thing as imaginary in place of another. Sometimes there is the impression that there is something where there is nothing.

&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; Seeing snakes instead of ropes in the dark, perceiving ghosts in closed rooms in the dark, seeing lamp posts on the road as if someone were standing, seeing entire objects moving in the opposite direction while traveling by train are faults of false observation.&nbsp;

&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; There are two types of misleading observations. That is 一

(i) Individual&nbsp;&nbsp;fallacious observations&nbsp;

(ii) universal&nbsp;&nbsp;fallacious observation&nbsp;

(c) Observation fault.

Answer:&nbsp;- Non-observation error or non-observation error is an error in observation caused by not paying attention to the subjects or objects related to the observation. This fault is caused by not paying proper attention to the necessary issues. Oversight or oversight faults can be divided into two categories ー

(i)&nbsp;&nbsp;unobserved faults or unobserved faults of relevant instances.

(ii)&nbsp;&nbsp;non-observation fault or non-observation fault of relevant circumstances.&nbsp;

3. By definition:

(a) Observation

Answer&nbsp;:&nbsp;Both monitoring and testing are called observations. Observation is a well-controlled explicit observation for a specific purpose.&nbsp;

(b) Testing

Answer&nbsp;:&nbsp;Testing is the preparation and observation of an artificial phenomenon in an artificial environment for a specific purpose.&nbsp;

(c) Observation fault

Answer:&nbsp;-&nbsp;&nbsp;Non-observation error or non-observation error is an error in observation caused by not paying attention to the subjects or objects related to the observation.&nbsp;

(d) Individual fallacious observations.

Answer:&nbsp;-&nbsp;&nbsp;An observation that is wrong, ie, one thing is thought to be another thing, is called a misleading observation.&nbsp;

4. The Determine the difference:

(a) Monitoring and testing

Answer&nbsp;:&nbsp;The differences between monitoring and testing are mentioned below

(i) Nature supplies the subject of monitoring. Therefore, the subject of observation is natural phenomena.&nbsp;

&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; On the other hand, the subject of testing is not supplied by nature. The subject matter of the event is artificially prepared in an artificial environment. Therefore, the subject of testing is artificial events.

(ii) In observation, events are observed in the natural environment.&nbsp;

&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;In testing, on the other hand, the event is observed in an artificial environment.&nbsp;

(iii) In observation, the observer has no control over the environmental conditions as the event occurs amidst natural environmental conditions. Since the environment in monitoring cannot be changed by the monitor, the event has to be monitored exactly in the environment in which it occurs.&nbsp;

&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; The incident occurred in an artificial environment during the test. This environment is created manually by the tester. Therefore, the environment is completely under the control of the tester. The tester can also adjust the environment if necessary.&nbsp;

(b) Non-observation error and misleading observation error.&nbsp;

The differences between observation error and misobservation error are as&nbsp;follows&nbsp;:&nbsp;

(i)&nbsp;&nbsp;Non-observation fault Observation of relevant instances or situations is not made.&nbsp;

&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; On the other hand, misleading observations are wrong observations. One object is observed in place of another.&nbsp;

(ii)&nbsp;&nbsp;In observation errors, the necessary information remains unknown to us.&nbsp;

&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; On the other hand, the data does not remain in the wrong observation. Instead, there is a different information.&nbsp;

(iii)&nbsp;&nbsp;In the fault of observation, we do not see what we should see. Therefore, it falls into the negative fault.

&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; In fallacious observation, on the other hand, the object is mistakenly perceived. But not entirely unnoticed. Therefore, the erroneous observation falls into the positive fault.&nbsp;

(c) Individual fallacious observations and universal fallacious observations.

The differences&nbsp;between personal&nbsp;misperception and universal misperception are mentioned below&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;

(i) Erroneous observations in a particular case are called individual erroneous observations.

&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; On the other hand,&nbsp;observations that are minor, ie universal, are called universal misconceptions.&nbsp;

(ii) Wrongly observing a lamp post on the road as a human being, thinking of a rope as a snake, etc. are subjective fallacious observations.

&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; On the other hand, there is a universal misconception that objects in front of you are moving in the opposite direction when traveling by train.&nbsp;

5. Give a short answer:

(a) How many types and what are the material bases of arrival estimates?

Answer&nbsp;:&nbsp;There are two types of material basis for arrival estimates. That is − monitoring and testing.&nbsp;

(b) Why are verification and monitoring the material basis of arrival estimates?

Answer:&nbsp;-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The term "material basis" in this context may be a little specific. One possible explanation why it is important to test and monitor arrival estimates is as follows 一

(i)&nbsp;Accuracy and efficiency&nbsp;: -&nbsp;

&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;Accurate time of arrival:&nbsp;Verification helps ensure that the data used for arrival estimation is accurate. This reduces wasted time for both the provider (e.g., delivery service) and the customer (e.g., waiting for delivery).

&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;Identify factors affecting arrivals:&nbsp;Monitoring helps to understand how factors such as traffic, weather or unexpected delays affect arrival times. This allows estimates to be adjusted and improves overall efficiency.

(ii)&nbsp;Improved user experience&nbsp;: -

&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;Setting expectations:&nbsp;Knowing a realistic arrival case helps users plan accordingly, reducing frustration and improving customer satisfaction.

&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;Transparency and trust:&nbsp;Understanding the factors that influence arrival time allows users to trust the estimates provided.&nbsp;

&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;Overall, the testing and monitoring arrival hypothesis aims to create a more reliable and efficient system that benefits both providers and users.

(c) How many types of observation errors and what are they?

Answer&nbsp;: There are two types of observation errors. That is ―&nbsp;

(i)&nbsp;&nbsp;Non-observation faults or unobserved faults and&nbsp;

(ii) Erroneous observation error or malicious observation error.&nbsp;

(d) Is simple observation a completely passive experience?

Answer:&nbsp;-&nbsp;Yes.&nbsp;

(e) What is simple observation? What are its advantages over testing?&nbsp;

Answer&nbsp;:&nbsp;&nbsp;Observation&nbsp;is&nbsp;the&nbsp;well&nbsp;-&nbsp;controlled&nbsp;observation of&nbsp;a&nbsp;natural&nbsp;phenomenon in&nbsp;the&nbsp;natural&nbsp;environment&nbsp;for&nbsp;a&nbsp;specific&nbsp;purpose .&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;

&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; The advantages of simple observation or monitoring over testing are as follows:

&nbsp;(i) The scope of monitoring is very wide compared to testing. There are many things that happen in the kingdom of nature. Some of them are always and some are occasional. These events have no scope. Natural phenomena occur in the natural environment through natural laws. Since events are not under the control of the observer, observation is made possible by observation rather than testing. For example, to find out the cause of an earthquake, we must rely on nature until it occurs. This is because testing&nbsp;cannot artificially produce earthquakes. We cannot artificially create famine to determine the cause of famine. It has been shown that only observation can determine the cause of such actions. So, the scope of monitoring is greater than that of testing.&nbsp;(ii) In monitoring, one can go from action to cause and from cause to action. In arrival, the events explored appear to the observer sometimes as actions and sometimes as causes. With the help of observation, if the action is known, we can investigate the cause. Again, if we know the cause, we can also determine what its action will be. Observation can be used to determine whether the cause of malaria is the bite of the Anopheles mosquito. There is also a certainty that malaria can be caused by the bite of an anopheles mosquito.&nbsp; (iii) Location of inspection Before verification. Monitoring precedes testing. When witnessing an event, observation is always the first step. Testing is possible in cases of limited or low scope events. However, if the scope of the incident is widespread, one has to be satisfied with observation.&nbsp;

7. What is testing? What are its advantages over simple observations?

Answer&nbsp;:&nbsp;Testing is the preparation and observation of an artificial phenomenon in an artificial environment for a specific purpose.&nbsp;

&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;The advantages of testing over simple observation&nbsp;are&nbsp;&nbsp;as follows:

(i) The event can be observed again and again in the test. In testing, test cases are artificially prepared in an artificial environment. Therefore, both the environment and the event are under the control of the examiner. Since both the environment and the event are under the control of the examiner, the examiner can prepare the event multiple times and re-examine it from different angles in different environments as required. However, there is no such facility in monitoring. Since the observer cannot control nature in observation, he can only observe if the event occurs in a natural environment in the bosom of nature.&nbsp;

(ii) In testing, the test event can be completely separated by the tester from other irrelevant events.&nbsp;

&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; Natural phenomena are very complex. Events are presented to the observer in a mixed form. Therefore, in order to properly analyze the event, it must be separated from other irrelevant events and the advantage of separation lies only in testing; This is because the environment and events in the test are completely under the control of the tester.&nbsp;

(iii) Events can be observed very healthily in testing.

&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; In testing, the examiner artificially prepares the event under investigation in an artificial environment. Both the environment and events are under the control of the examiner. Therefore, the tester can continue the testing slowly with great caution. In observation, however, this is not the case. The auditor has no control over the subject matter of the audit as it is dependent in nature. Natural events happen by chance. Events sometimes last only a very short time. Therefore, the inspector has to witness the events very immediately.&nbsp;

(iv) Monitoring decisions are ,tentative, but testing decisions are certain.&nbsp;

&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; The examiner is sure of the conclusions reached in the examination. However, the validity of the conclusions reached by monitoring is uncertain. Many decisions in monitoring are beyond verification because the validity of their decisions is almost reliable. In testing, on the other hand, the examiner has no doubt about the validity of the decision.&nbsp;

8. "Monitoring and testing are not qualitative differences , they are quantitative differences" Explain the statement.

Answer&nbsp;:&nbsp;There is no fundamental difference between monitoring and testing. Both processes are purposeful and the purpose is the same in both cases. The purpose of both monitoring and testing is to analyze events and determine the real cause. With that objective in mind, in both cases, the subject is selected, the mind is well-controlled and events are observed with concentration and attention. Therefore, monitoring and testing are the same in purpose.&nbsp;

&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;Both observation and testing contribute significantly to scientific research. Both processes are equally welcome. Events found in the natural environment are observed. On the other hand, testing is used in artificially produced materials. Testing also involves monitoring and monitoring may require testing.&nbsp;

9. What is observation? What conditions should be observed before observation?

Answer&nbsp;:&nbsp;Both monitoring and testing are called observations. Observation is a well-controlled explicit observation for a specific purpose.&nbsp;

&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; The conditions to be observed before observation are mentioned below 一

(i) Intellectual conditions

(ii) physical or physiological conditions

(iii) Moral conditions.&nbsp;

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